What are the similarities and differences among self-identified feminists, non-labelers, womanists, and pro-feminists?
The backlash against feminists has an effect. Although many girls and women believe in feminist ideals, it is less common for girls and women to identify as feminists (Liss, O’Connor, Morosky, & Crawford, 2001). In a survey of female college students, 75% endorsed some beliefs consistent with feminism, but only 11% actually labeled themselves as feminists (Liss, Crawford, & Popp, 2004). In a more recent study, researchers found that 28% of female college students identified as feminists (Fitz, Zucker, & Bay-Cheng, 2012). Many took the “I’m not a feminist, but . . .” stance. This isn’t surprising because self-identified feminists have to willingly take on a stigmatized identity. A woman who has some pro-feminist attitudes but who doesn’t identify as a feminist is often called a non-labeler.
There are so many non-labelers that comedians have started to poke fun at the concept. Although comedian Aziz Ansari is not the perfect representative of feminism—a topic we’ll return to in Chapter 12—he has offered what is perhaps the perfect analogy: “If you believe that men and women have equal rights, if someone asks if you’re a feminist, you have to say yes because that is how words work. You can’t be like, ‘Oh yeah I’m a doctor that primarily does diseases of the skin.’ Oh, so you’re a dermatologist? ‘Oh no, that’s way too aggressive of a word! No no, not at all not at all’” (Gupta, 2014, para. 4).
The important distinguishing factor between women who self-label as feminists and those who are non-labelers is that feminists are aware that gender inequities still exist (Liss & Erchull, 2010). Non-labelers generally think that women are already empowered and that no more work is necessary because women have achieved equity. In contrast, feminists see work that still needs to be done. This discrepancy has important social implications because without addressing sexism it’s unlikely that social systems will change (Anderson, 2015; Taylor & Whittier, 1992). The very act of calling oneself a feminist in front of other people is considered a form of activism because it undermines stereotypes of feminism. If only a few people stand up against sexism, there won’t be enough critical mass to draw attention and promote change. Women who call themselves feminists understand this. They are willing to commit to causes larger than themselves (Yoder, Tobias, & Snell, 2011) and are more likely to confront sexism (Burn, Aboud, & Moyles, 2000; Yoder et al., 2011). Women who identify as feminists are also less likely to believe negative stereotypes about feminists, and they’re more likely to hold positive views about feminists (Liss et al., 2001).
It isn’t surprising, then, that people who are exposed to feminism—either because they have feminist relatives or because they’ve taken a women’s studies course—are more likely to identify as feminists (Bargad & Hyde, 1991; Nelson et al., 2008; Zucker, 2004). Having a sexual minority identity is also associated with a higher likelihood of identifying as a feminist (Friedman & Ayres, 2013; Leaper & Arias, 2011; Lottes & Kuriloff, 1994). Further, experiencing overt sexism leads women to understand oppression, which results in a greater likelihood of identifying as a feminist (Leaper & Arias, 2011; Reid & Purcell, 2004).
Notably, some women choose not to identify as feminists because of bias within the women’s movement. As we’ve discussed, the early feminist movement ignored and thereby perpetuated discrimination among large groups of women, including women of color, sexual minority women, trans and gender non-conforming women, and non-Western women. In response, for example, activist and writer Alice Walker (1983) coined the term womanist, an identity label that stems from the experiences of Black women and other women of color. The term encompasses feminism, but it also differs because it doesn’t prioritize sexism over other forms of oppression (e.g., racism; Phillips, 2006).
There is evidence that women of color are more likely to identify with womanist beliefs rather than those associated with different types of feminism (Boisnier, 2003). Several researchers have found that, among women of color, holding womanist beliefs was associated with higher self-esteem (Ossana, Helms, & Leonard, 1992; Poindexter-Cameron & Robinson, 1997). Inspired by their womanist sisters, Latinx feminists coined the term mujerista (from the Spanish word mujer, meaning “woman”; Isasi-Diaz, 1992, 1996). Similar to womanists, mujeristas are critical of the marginalization of women of color by White feminists and instead support a type of feminism that prioritizes the lives of Latinx* women. Mujeristas especially act toward the decolonization of all people (Anzaldúa, 2007; Isasi-Diaz, 1992). Taken together, womanism and mujerismo offer a way for psychologists to understand how women of color might identify with feminism that takes a distinctive intersectional approach (Comaz-Diaz, 2008; Holiday, 2010).
How does racism play a role in whether or not a person will identify as a feminist? What are the unique issues connected to men and feminist identification?
Although contemporary feminist thought includes the concept of intersectionality, much work remains to address discrimination within feminism (Phillips, 2006). For example, in 2015, the actress Patricia Arquette ignited tremendous criticism for saying in her Academy Award acceptance speech, “It’s time for all the women in America and all the men that love women, and all the gay people, and all the people of color that we’ve all fought for to fight for us now” (Marcotte, 2015, para. 3). The statement didn’t go over well because it sounded like she was saying that until now White women had fought for gay people and people of color, and now it was time for them to fight for White women. Arquette later admitted that she should have chosen her words more carefully. Another major critique has been launched against feminist Lena Dunham for showcasing almost no women of color in her popular HBO show Girls—despite the fact that it’s supposedly set in New York, a highly diverse city. Because of incidents like these, some women of color prefer not to use the feminist label at all.
spotlight on . . .
Misperceptions of Feminism
In 2012, some Duke University students started the Who Needs Feminism Tumblr campaign, featuring photos of handwritten signs addressing misconceptions of feminism. In 2013, an opposing Tumblr blog, Women Against Feminism, showcased selfies of women holding signs with negative statements about feminism. Seen together, the positive and negative messages reflect the different ways in which people dialogue and disagree about feminism.
- I don’t need feminism because I believe in equality, not entitlements and supremacy.
(Women Against Feminism, 2014)
- I need feminism because I don’t view equality as a radical concept.
(“I need feminism because,” 2013)
- I don’t need feminism because I am not a victim.
(Borecka, n.d.)
- I need feminism because I refuse to be victimized by social, cultural, and political misogyny. I am not a victim, I am a survivor.
(whoneedsfeminism, 2014)
- I don’t need feminism because I am not a delusional, disgusting, hypocritical man-hater. I respect men and they respect me!
(“I don’t need feminism,” n.d.)
- I need feminism not because I hate men, but because people think that is what being a feminist means.
(Léonie, n.d.)
There is also evidence that the experience of racism influences feminist identity (Cole, 2009). While White feminists can focus on countering sexism, women of color worry about racism as well. To demonstrate this, researchers found that Black feminists place a high value on wearing feminine clothing, but White feminists did not (Cole & Zucker, 2007). The researchers proposed that Black women strategically attend to physical appearance to combat racist stereotypes of Black women being sexually promiscuous, aggressive, and bad mothers. This dynamic was evident when former first lady Michelle Obama was criticized by some White feminists for calling herself Mom-in-Chief and focusing her activism on traditionally feminine domains. A White woman who’s worried about sexism may try not to be too domestic in the White House because that would activate sexist stereotypes. However, because a woman of color has to worry about racism too, Michelle Obama may have focused on domestic tasks so she wouldn’t activate racist stereotypes of Black women being overly domineering. This is another example of how feminist identification can vary among girls and women depending on other aspects of their other social identities.
There is also debate over whether boys and men can label themselves as feminists. Many do identify as feminists, but some prefer the label pro-feminist, a term that incorporates feminism but also expresses interest in working alongside girls and women for social action and change. Pro-feminist men use the term to signal that they aren’t speaking on behalf of women but, instead, see themselves as allies. Pro-feminist men recognize social inequities, and compared to men who don’t identify as feminists, they’re more likely to report incidents of gender bias and less likely to use sexist language (Hyers, 2007; Swim, Mallett, & Stangor, 2004). Perhaps most interestingly, research shows that when men confront instances of sexism, they are more likely to be believed and experience fewer personal costs than women who confront those instances (Eliezer & Major, 2012; Rasinski & Czopp, 2010). These findings underscore the vital role that boys and men can play when they become engaged in the feminist movement, regardless of how they refer to themselves. We’ll revisit this topic in Chapter 14.
Although there’s less research on understanding how men become feminists, the growing interest in examining men’s roles within the context of unequal gender relationships has given rise to an entire academic field: men’s studies. Although men continue to be less likely than women to recognize sexism, some men—particularly those who’ve been exposed to positive portrayals of feminism—report a great deal of support for feminism and subsequently engage in feminist activism (Flood, 2011; Swim, Hyers, Cohen, & Ferguson, 2001).
try it for yourself
Spend some time thinking about what it means to be a feminist man. Visit the website feministvoices.com, and search for social psychologist Peter Hegarty. Listen to his interview about the problems of taking on a feminist identity as a man. Do you agree or disagree with him? Explain your response. Then ask three men to describe their thoughts about feminism. Would they consider themselves feminists? Why or why not? Did you find any men who explicitly identified as feminists? Was this task easy or hard? How did you feel talking about this topic with men?
*Authors’ note: Latinx is a gender neutral term used as an alternative to Latina or Latino. Because of its inclusivity, we will use Latinx throughout the book.
What benefits are associated with feminist identification?
Although the discussion of the negative stereotypes about feminists may suggest otherwise, there are many benefits to identifying as a feminist. For example, some research has shown that feminists are perceived as intelligent, knowledgeable, productive, career-oriented, and active (Rudman & Fairchild, 2007; Twenge & Zucker, 1999). These positive beliefs influence girls’ and women’s decision to identify as feminists (Roy, Weibust, & Miller, 2007). Also, women who identify as feminists report better psychological well-being, experience less body shame, and have increased sexual satisfaction compared to those who do not (Hurt et al., 2007; Rudman & Phelan, 2007; Saunders & Kashubeck-West, 2006). Feminism helps women to develop relationships across difference—among White girls and women, having a feminist identity is associated with taking an anti-racist stance (Banks, Murray, Brown, & Hammond, 2014; Rosette & Tost, 2013). Additionally, feminism has helped to build positive relationships between heterosexual women and sexual minority women, and between able-bodied women and women with disabilities (LaMantia, Wagner, & Bohecker, 2015; Wehbi, 2010). Further, feminism has helped to cultivate relationships across national boundaries (Norsworthy & Khuankaew, 2013). Some feminist activists that we’ve worked with refer to these advantages as “having a good dose of Vitamin F.”
Even among non-labelers, there is evidence that endorsement of feminist values has psychological benefits; however, more research is needed in this area (Saunders & Kashubeck-West, 2006). For example, psychologist Oksana Yakushko (2007) explored the psychological well-being of mostly White, U.S. women and found that those who endorsed feminist beliefs reported a greater sense of independence and purpose than those who did not. They were also more open to new experiences. In a different study of mostly White women, those who endorsed feminist attitudes reported greater self-confidence about their sexuality and a greater inclination to have sex based on their own desires and motivations as compared to women who didn’t endorse feminist beliefs (Schick, Zucker, & Bay-Cheng, 2008). Greater endorsement of feminist beliefs has also been linked to high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and academic achievement (Eisele & Stake, 2008; Fischer & Good, 1994; Valenzuela, 1993).
Recent literature describes how men benefit from feminism as well. There are many psychological costs of conforming to traditional norms of masculinity, and feminist identification gives men the freedom to reject these rigid expectations (Kilmartin & Smiler, 2015). When asked about identifying as a feminist, actor Joseph Gordon-Levitt said, “What [feminism] means to me is that you don’t let your gender define who you are—you can be who you want to be. . . . I’m a believer that if everyone has a fair chance to be what they want to be and do what they want to do, it’s better for everyone. It benefits society as a whole” (Stern, 2014, para. 12). Men’s roles have stayed relatively stable despite the dramatic changes in girls’ and women’s roles over the last 50 years (Levant, 2014). Organizations such as the Society for the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity, and scholarly journals such as Psychology of Men and Masculinity, explore masculinity from a feminist psychological perspective.