The mosaic shows a group of seven bearded men gathered beneath an olive tree. A sundial rests on a column behind them. Five of the men are focused on a globe located near the lower center of the image, while a pair of men on the right gesture to each other and appear to be in discussion about a scroll. Two men on the far right also hold scrolls. The central image is framed by a lush border of pomegranates, apples, berries, leaves, and ribbons punctuated by eight male and female comic masks.
Before You Read This Chapter
STORY LINES
Although the different Greek poleis (city-states) did not share a common political structure, they shared a strong sense of identity and were united by their belief in the superiority of Greek language and culture.
The emergence of a political system known as democracy in some ancient Greek poleis was dependent on specific historical circumstances, which included reliance on slavery and the exclusion of women from public life.
The cultural achievements of the fifth century B.C.E., as exemplified by Athens, glorified the individual male citizen, his male ancestors, and his role in the community and governance of the polis.
The Athenians’ leadership in the Persian Wars and their subsequent imperial expansion enabled them to dominate the Mediterranean and also, through the use of writing, to influence our understanding of their role in history.
CHRONOLOGY
800–400 B.C.E.Rise of the polis
c. 750 B.C.E.Homeric epics transcribed
725–650 B.C.E.Hoplite tactics become standard among most poleis
c. 600 B.C.EMilitarization of Sparta
600–500 B.C.E.Emergence of the Milesian School (pre-Socratic philosophy)
594 B.C.E.Solon’s political reforms in Athens
546 B.C.E.Cyrus of Persia conquers Lydia and controls the Greek cities of Ionia
510 B.C.E.Overthrow of the Peisistratid tyranny in Athens
499–494 B.C.E.Ionian Revolt
490 B.C.E.Battle of Marathon
480 B.C.E.Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis
479 B.C.E.Battle of Plataea
478 B.C.E.Formation of the Delian League
431 B.C.E.Peloponnesian War begins
404 B.C.E.Defeat of Athens by Sparta
399 B.C.E.Death of Socrates
CORE OBJECTIVES
DESCRIBE the factors that led to the emergence of the Greek polis.
EXPLAIN the importance of hoplite warfare and its effects on democratic politics and military tactics.
DEFINE the key differences among the poleis of Athens, Sparta, and Miletus.
IDENTIFY the ways in which Athenian culture, philosophy, and art reflect democratic ideals.
UNDERSTAND the impact of the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars on Greek civilization.
In the fifth century B.C.E., a Greek-speaking subject of the Persian Empire began to write a book. He had been to Egypt and along the African coast, to the Greek colonies of Italy, the cities of Persia, the wilds of Thrace and Macedonia, and all over the Aegean. He had collected stories about peoples and places even farther afield: Ethiopia, India, the Black Sea. We have already met this intrepid traveler, Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 B.C.E.), who marveled at the pyramids of Giza (see Chapter 1) and who told how the king of Lydia lost his power to the Persians (see Chapter 2). His reason for compiling this information was timely: he wanted to write a history of recent events. As he put it, “Herodotus of Halicarnassus here sets forth the results of his research, with the aim of preserving the remembrance of what men have done, and of preventing the great and wonderful deeds of both Greeks and barbarians from losing their glory; and in particular to examine the causes that made them fight one another.”
Herodotus’s fascination with the peoples he calls “barbarians” underscores the extent to which the Greeks regarded themselves as different from—and superior to—other ancient civilizations. While they struggled to cooperate politically and militarily, they were able to forge a common language and culture, and they cherished values that were distinct from peoples whose speech, to Greek ears, sounded like gibberish (“bar-bar-bar”). Indeed, the philosopher Aristotle would articulate the Greek belief that only barbarians are “natural” slaves, whereas even an enslaved Greek cannot be rendered inferior by that status. The Greeks were also convinced of male superiority and celebrated the individual liberty of free men, participatory government by male citizens, artistic innovation, scientific investigation, and the powers of the masculine mind. Although the practical implementation of these ideals would prove problematic—and continues to be so—our own civilization would be unimaginable without the political experiments and cultural achievements of ancient Greece.
More information
Short description
The Acropolis of Athens and the Parthenon.
Long description
The Acropolis of Athens and the Parthenon are built upon mountain strongholds and both have suffered some destruction from wars.
THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS AND THE PARTHENON. Many Greek cities were built upon mountain strongholds, but the most famous of these is the acropolis of Athens. First settled in the Neolithic Period, it was a fortified palace during the Bronze Age—allegedly that of the hero Theseus—and then a precinct sacred to the goddess Athena, for whom the city was named. The Parthenon, its most important surviving structure, was built on the site of an older temple after the Athenian victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490 B.C.E. It was then rebuilt after the Persians sacked Athens ten years later. Most of the damage it sustained thereafter occurred during modern wars. ■ Why was this site the focal point of so much activity? ■ What does its longevity tell us about the relationship between place and identity in Greece?
